Mohammad Chizari, Associate Professor

Agricultural Extension and Education Department

Tarbiat Modarres University

Tehran, Iran

James R. Lindner, Research and Extension Associate

The Ohio State University 's Piketon Research and Extension Center

Mohammad Zoghie, Agricultural Extension Specialist

Ministry of Agriculture

Khorasan, Iran

Abstract

As Iran addresses the goal of self-sufficiency in the production of food and fiber products,

sustainable agriculture is gaining interest within Extension and the Ministry of Agriculture as a

means of achieving this goal. Dependence on pesticide and insecticide imports, compounded by a

growing population, limited arable land, and high soil erosion, has led to the call for more

regarding sustainable agriculture practices. A random sample of extension agents in the Khorasan

Province was surveyed by mail. Agents perceived sustainable agriculture to mean lower chemical

inputs, natural resource and environmental protection, effective and efficient agricultural

production system, and reliance on organic matter. Agents also indicated a preference for

sustainable agricultural practices. Younger and less experienced agents tended to prefer

sustainable over traditional agriculture practices. Agents also indicated the need for more local

research. Implications for these results are given and recommendations made.

Introduction

including personal views, family views, technology, profitability, complexity, public

opinion, research, change agents, and marketing (Betru, 1998; Kotile & Martin, 1998).

According to the authors, sustainable agricultural practices offer farmers hope for greater

efficiencies and effectiveness. In Iran, sustainable agriculture is gaining popularity

among extension agents, farmers, various organizations and ministries and, in particular,

the Extension service and the Ministry of Agriculture (Chizari, Pezeshki & Lindner, 1998).

Crosson (1992) defines sustainable agriculture as meeting the demand of future generations, for food and fiber at socially acceptable economic and environmental costs. York (1989) states the goal of sustainable agriculture should be to maintain production levels necessary to meet the increasing aspirations of an expanding worldpopulation without degrading the environment.It implies concern for generation of income,promotion of appropriate policies, andconservation of natural resources.

Several factors are influencing change agents andvarious agencies to consider sustainableagriculture practices. Iran has limited arableland, compounded by high soil erosion. Itspopulation is growing. It is dependent on rice,

wheat, and meat imports. It is also dependent onpesticide and insecticide imports.

sufficiency in Iran has been the focus of recent

research (Chizari, Karbasioun & Lindner, 1998;

Chizari, Pishbin & Lindner, 1997; Chizari,

Lindner & Bashardoost, 1997; Pezeshki-Raad,

Yoder & Diamond, 1994). Extension agents

have played a key role in helping agriculture

systems overcome many problems. However, for

agents to help with sustainable agricultural

practices they must first understand sustainable

agriculture concepts (Agunga, 1995).

Assessing educational needs of extension agents

is recognized as an important element among

extension services and seen as a critical factor in

the success of the organization. According to

Buford, Bedeian and Lindner (1995), as

Extension agents face the challenge of learning

new skills to maintain their proficiency or

become qualified for promotion, the importance

of an effective staff training program for

extension agents becomes evident. These

authors state further that to ensure extension

agents are well trained, extension management

capabilities. Similarly Chizari, Karbasioun and

Lindner (1998) note that Extension will be

seriously limited in its ability to plan and execute

effective educational programs and other

technology transfer activities without an

adequate number of well-trained agents.

According to Alonge and Martin (1995), the first

step toward adoption of new ideas by farmers is

to provide information on sustainable practices.

What has emerged, however, is evidence of

bipolar values among extension agents on this

subject. Agencies and institutions engaged in

information dissemination and educational

activities often have personnel specifically

charged with information and education

responsibilities who themselves have information

and education needs (Rollins & Golden, 1994).

Shahbazi (1993) warned that to deny the lack of

knowledge and the educational needs of

extension agents of Iran regarding sustainable

agriculture is to deny that technologies related to

agriculture are changing. Karami (1995) wrote

that the problems facing sustainable agriculture

in Iran primarily focus attention on ecological

aspects. However, the author notes that

perceptions, attitudes, educational training, and

beliefs of extension agents are equally if not

more important factors.

Agunga (1995) noted that extension agents need

to be trained in sustainable agriculture in order to

develop their understanding, competence, and

ability to teach and communicate the concepts to

farmers and others. He further stated that the

logic is simple: If Extension agents are not

convinced of the value of sustainability, how can

they be expected to educate farmers? Extension

services, due to their large network of personnel,

are in a better position to formulate a cohesive

structure for promoting sustainable agriculture

education.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study was to identify

perceptions of extension agents regarding

sustainable agriculture in Khorasan Province,

Iran.Specific objectives were:

1. Describe the meaning of sustainable

agriculture as perceived by extension agents

regarding sustainable agriculture in

Khorasan Province, Iran.

2. Describe extension agent perceptions toward

current research and extension efforts in

sustainable agriculture.

3. Explore relationships among extension

agriculture versus sustainable agriculture

methods.

4. Explore relationships toward sustainability

by selected extension agent demographics.

Methods and Procedures

Population

Extension agents (N = 125) in Khorasan

Province, Iran were the target population for this

study. Extension agents (89) were selected by

simple random sample to participate in this study

(Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). The Ministry of

was used to locate the agents in each township

within the province. The researchers verified the

list before distribution of the survey to control for

frame and selection threats to external validity.

Khorasan Province is the largest province of Iran

(315,000 square kilometers), and produces many

agricultural crops: rice, wheat, rye, barley,

cotton, potato, sorghum, corn, fruits, and sugar

cane. It is located in the northeast part of the

country and has 150,000 hectares of arable land.

The province has a population of 6.1 million, of

which 3 million live in rural areas.

Research design and data analysis

The research design used for this study was a

descriptive survey. A questionnaire was

developed from the review of literature. The

questionnaire consisted of three separate sections

according to the purpose and objectives of the

study. Likert-type scales were used to quantify

the responses. Content and face validity was

established by a panel of experts consisting of

faculty members and graduate students at Tarbiat

Modarres University, Iran. A pilot test was

conducted with 12 extension agents in two

townships of Tehran Province three weeks before

the study. As a result of the pilot test, minor

changes in wording were made in the

questionnaire. Questionnaire reliability was

estimated (based on the pilot test) by calculating

instrument was .79.

Data were collected through a questionnaire

mailed to the 89 agents in the Khorasan

Province, Iran. Those who failed to respond

were sent a postcard reminder. If the reminder

failed to elicit a response, a follow-up letter and

duplicate questionnaire were mailed. The

response rate was 99%. An early versus late

respondent comparison was made to determine if

nonresponse was a threat to the validity of the

study (Kerlinger, 1986; Miller & Smith, 1983).

Using this procedure, no statistically significant

differences between the groups were found.

Therefore, findings from this study are assumed

to be generalizable to the population from which

it was drawn. Data collected were analyzed

using the Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences, Personal Computer Version (SPSS

Inc., 1991). Appropriate statistical procedures

for description (frequencies, percents, means,

and standard deviations) were used.

Results

All the participants had a Bachelor of Science in

an agriculture-related degree. However, only 8%

of the respondents were agricultural extension

majors. Fifty-two percent of respondents held an

agronomy and plant breeding degree. Eleven

percent of respondents had a horticulture degree.

All subjects were male. Thirty-seven percent of

the respondents were between the age of 25-32

years. Thirty-five percent had one to five years

experience working for Extension. Most of the

agents (60%) were married.

Objective One

Participants were given a set of statements

representing different meanings of sustainable

agriculture. Respondents were instructed to

choose those statements that represented the

meaning of sustainable agriculture. A limitation

of this study is that the narrow definition of

sustainable agriculture as presented may not

completely represent the complexity of

sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, the study

does not represent what sustainable agriculture

is, but what agents perceive sustainable

agriculture to mean.

As shown in Table 1, 98% of the extension

agents agreed or strongly agreed that using less

chemical inputs while maintaining profitability

was the meaning of sustainable agriculture.

Ninety-four percent of the agents agreed or

strongly agreed that protecting natural resources

and environment protection was the meaning of

sustainable agriculture. Sixty-six percent of the

participants agreed or strongly agreed that

sustainable agriculture meant using a lot of

organic matters. Sixty-one percent of the

Extension agents agreed or strongly agreed that

sustainable agriculture was a system that is

effective, productive and efficient. No other

statement representing the meaning of

sustainable agriculture received the 50%

agreement or strong agreement level.

Objective Two

perceptions about the current condition of

research and extension efforts in sustainable

agriculture. Ninety-three percent of agents stated

they needed to do a better job of diffusing

sustainable agriculture principles to farmers.

Only 15% of agents indicated there were

insufficient number of information centers and

resources on sustainable agriculture. Also, only

8% of Extension agents thought enough research

regarding sustainable agriculture has been

conducted.

Table 1

1

Using less chemical inputs while

maintaining profitability

87

98

4.6

0.6

2 Protecting natural resources and

environmental protection

84 94 4.5 0.6

3 A system that is effective, productive

and efficient

54 61 3.6 0.9

4 Using a lot of organic matters 59 66 3.5 1.1

Table 2

1

Extension agents need to do a better

job of diffusing sustainable agriculture

principles to farmers

83

93

4.6

0.7

2 Information centers and resources

about sustainable agriculture are

lacking

13 15 2.5 0.9

3 Enough research on sustainable

agriculture in Iran has been conducted

6 8 2.2 0.8

Objective Three

Respondents were asked to indicate their

preference for sustainable over traditional

agriculture practices. As shown in Table 3, the

highest ranked sustainable agriculture practice

was fertility (96%). Agents indicated it is better

to use green fertilizer, organic matter, and crop

rotation than chemical fertilizer. Crop mix

(87%) and crop production management (87%)

were the next highest ranked sustainable

preferences for lower purchased inputs and

higher labor costs rather than higher purchased

inputs and lower labor costs. Agents (85%)

expressed social concerns in terms of protecting

natural resources for future generations. Agents

(74%) preferred as few tillage operations as

possible. Agents (71%) indicated traditional

agriculture practices have contributed to overall

environmental pollution. According to agents,

preference should be given to varieties that

require low chemical inputs and produce average

yields (67%) over varieties that require high

chemical inputs and produce greater yields.

Weed control (9%) was the only farming practice

where agents preferred traditional agriculture

practices. They preferred chemical weeding to

mechanical weeding. This finding contradicts

some of the findings of this study and indicates

the difficulty of adopting sustainable agriculture

systems, which to be successfully implemented

must be adopted across the entire farming

operation.

Table 3

1

Fertility

85

96

3.0

0.2

2 Crop mix 77 87 2.9 0.4

3 Crop production management 77 87 2.9 0.5

4 Social concern 76 85 2.9 0.4

5 Tillage system 66 74 2.7 0.5

6 Environmental protection 64 71 2.6 0.6

7 Variety selection 60 67 2.6 0.7

8 Weed control 8 9 1.6 0.7

Objective Four

The first hypothesis in this objective was to test

for significant differences in preferences for

sustainable agriculture practices by degree major.

At an alpha level of .05, the null hypothesis was

not rejected, F(6, 82)=2.21, and it was concluded

that preferences for sustainable agriculture

practices were not significantly related to degree

major (Table 4).

Soil Science

6

4.4

Agronomy and plant breeding 51 4.3

Other 6 4.2

Horticulture 11 4.1

Extension education 8 3.9

Animal science 8 3.9

General agriculture 10 3.7

The second hypothesis in this objective was to

test for significant differences in preferences for

sustainable agriculture practices by years of

experience. At an alpha level of .05, the null

hypothesis was rejected, F(2, 86)=3.03. It was

concluded that years of experience was

sustainable agriculture practices (Table 5).

Agents with less experience are more likely to

support sustainable agriculture practices.

Table 5

1 to 5 years

35

2.8

6 to 15 years 33 2.6

More than 15 years 33 2.5

The third hypothesis in this objective was to test

for significant differences in preferences for

sustainable agriculture practices by age. At an

alpha level of .05, the null hypothesis was

rejected, F(2, 86)=3.03. It was concluded that

preferences for sustainable agriculture practices

(Table 6). The younger the agent, the more

likely they were to support sustainable

agriculture practices. Although including both

age and experience as variables could be

questionable, the researchers chose to do so

because of the lack of national research regarding

the correlation of age and experience.

25 to 32 years

37

2.8

33 to 41 years 33 2.6

Over 41 years 30 2.6

Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following

conclusions were drawn and recommendations

made.

According to Agunga (1995, p. 170),

seeks to replace or modify current beliefs and

research indicates that extension agents in the

Khorasan Province perceive sustainable

agriculture to mean lower chemical inputs,

environmental and natural resource protection,

an effective and efficient agricultural production

system, and reliance on organic matter. These

sustainable agriculture. Most extension agents,

however, reported that they need to do a better

job diffusing sustainable agriculture information

to farmers. They indicated that there are

adequate information centers and resources

regarding sustainable agriculture, but, they also

recognized a need for continued research.

Although sustainable agriculture is a relatively

new concept in Iran, extension agents in

Khorasan Province indicated a preference for

sustainable agriculture practices related to

fertility, crop mix, crop production management,

social concerns, tillage systems, environmental

protection, and variety selection; however, they

preferred traditional agriculture weeding

practices. These perceptions were consistent

regardless of academic degree. However,

younger, less experienced agents were

more likely to prefer sustainable agriculture

practices than their counterparts.

Continued reliance on traditional agriculture

practices can result in damage to the credibility

of change agents and detract from the ability of

conventional farmers to adapt to sustainable

farming practices (Higgins, 1996). Research is

needed to determine if these findings hold true

for other extension agents in Iran. The results

from such a study could have implications in

developing techniques and strategies for

implementing sustainable agriculture programs

in the country.

More research needs to be conducted in the

several provinces to determine the educational

needs of extension agents regarding sustainable

agriculture. Extension agents will be better

equipped to deal with the barriers to

implementing sustainable agriculture practices

goal is to become self sufficient in food and fiber

production. Results from this study may serve as

a basis for further research regarding sustainable

agriculture, and educational needs of extension

agents.

The extent to which problems and issues

associated with natural resource management and

profitable farming systems will be solved

systematically remains uncertain. Research is

needed to determine the relationship between the

goal of self sufficiency and sustainable

agriculture practices. Research is also needed to

determine the best economic returns when

implementing sustainable agriculture systems.

The significant drop in percentages of extension

agents who agree or strongly agree that

sustainable agriculture is a system that is

effective, productive, and efficient suggest this is

another area of needed research. What does

effective, productive, or efficient mean or

measure? Is increased labor more effective,

productive, or efficient or is it more

environmentally friendly and socially

acceptable? What do these terms mean to

extension agents as they try to answer the

question?

Our final comments are directly attributed to an

anonymous reviewer of this manuscript. These

comments capture the complexity of researching

sustainable agriculture and provide a challenge to

those of us who attempt to do so.

more efficient. I believe it is more

management, knowledge, and information

intensive. To have a successful sustainable

farming system of mixed crops and livestock

the farmer will need more knowledge/

information on biological, chemical,

microbial, mechanical interactions of plants

and animals to improve production,

minimize pests (weeds, insects and diseases)

to economically acceptable levels, while

protecting the environment and natural

resources, and providing the farmer with an

economic return. The farmer will have to

spend more time thinking, developing a

farming system management strategy, and

then more time implementing the strategy to

attain a sustainable agriculture production

farming unit. Likewise, extension agents

will need considerably different training and

willingness to make a commitment to

providing more management information on

sustainable agriculture.

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